AN ANTHOLOGY OF THOUGHT & EMOTION... Un'antologia di pensieri & emozioni
הידע של אלוהים לא יכול להיות מושגת על ידי המבקשים אותו, אבל רק אלה המבקשים יכול למצוא אותו

TORAH MIN HASHAMAYIM

Book Cover of English Edition, 2005

THE APPENDIXES

1. Rabbinic Authorities of the Mishnah and Talmud
(Tannaim and Amoraim)

The major authorities cited by Abraham Joshua Heschel in his Heavenly Torah (Torah min Hashamayim) for his main argument comprise the teachers of the classic rabbinic period in Jewish thought. These include the Tannaim (teachers of the period of the Mishnah) and Amoraim (teachers of the period of the Talmud). They are conventionally grouped into "generations" of scholars as follows:

Generations of Tannaim
(Period of the Mishnah)
  1. 40-80 C.E.         Johanan ben Zakkai et al.
  2. 80-110 C.E.       Gamaliel II, Eliezer ben Hyrcanus, Joshua ben Hananiah, et al.
  3. 110-135 C.E.     Akiva, Ishmael, et al.
  4. 135-170 C.E.     Simeon ben Yohai, Judah ben Ilay, Meir, et al.
  5. 170-200 C.E.     Judah the Patriarch et al.
Generations of Amoraim
(Period of the Talmud)
LAND OF ISRAEL
BABYLONIA
1.   220-250 C.E.
Joshua ben Levi
Rav, Samuel
2.   250-290 C.E.
Johanan, Resh Lakish
Huna, Judah
3.   290-320 C.E.
Ammi, Assi, Zera
Rabba, Joseph
4.   320-350 C.E.
Hillel II
Abbaye, Rava
5.   350-375 C.E.
Tanhuma ben Abba
Pappa
6.   375-425 C.E.

Ashi, Ravina I
7.   425-460 C.E.

Mar ben Rav Ashi
8.   460-500 C.E.

Ravina II

Spelling. In this list, and in the text generally, we have adopted (with some slight simplification) the orthographic conventions of the Encyclopaedia Judaica. Names occurring in the Bible retain the spelling of standard English Bible translations. Other names are spelled phonetically.

Patronymics. If the patronymic is enclosed in parentheses, then this is the rabbi generally understood when this name is used without patronymic. For example, "Rabbi Judah" without patronymic refers generally to Rabbi Judah (ben Ilay).

Titles. The following titles were in use to designate authorities of varying degree and provenance:
  • "Rabban" was used to designate the Nasi (Patriarch) of the Sanhedrin or Academy.
  • "Rabbi" was used to designate those fully ordained in the tradition of the Land of Israel—Tannaim and Amoraim of the Land of Israel.
  • "Rav" (indicated by "R." in our text) was used to designate the leading teachers of the Babylonian community.  
Name
Tanna or Amora
Israel
or Babylonia
Generation
Abbahu
Amora
Israel
2nd-3rd
Abbaye
Amora
Babylonia
4th
Aha
Amora
Israel
4th
Akiva (ben Joseph)
(leader of one of the two great schools of thought analyzed in this volume)
Tanna
3rd
Alexander (= Alexandri)
Amora
Israel
2nd-3rd
Ammi
Amora
Israel
3rd
Ashi
(played major part in redaction of the traditions of the Babylonian Talmud)
Amora
Babylonia
6th
Avin (two teachers, father and son)
Amoraim
Babylonia
3rd-4th/5th
Bar Kappara (Transitional)
(possibly identified with Eleazar ha-Kappar, or his son)
Tanna
Israel
5th
Berechiah (aggadist)
Amora
Israel
4th
Bibi
Amora
Israel
3rd
Dimi
Amora
Babylonia
3rd-4th
Eleazar ben Arakh
(favourite disciple of Johanan ben Zakkai, attracted to mysticism)
Tanna
2nd
Eleazar ben Azariah
Tanna
3rd
Eleazar (ben Pedat)
Amora
Babylonia
2nd
(moved to Israel)
Eleazar ben Kappar (Kappara)
Tanna
5th
Eleazar the Modaite (of the town Modi'in)
Tanna
3rd
Eliezer (ben Hyrcanus)
(one of Rabbi Akiva's primary teachers)
Tanna
2nd
Eliezer ben Jacob (disciple of Rabbi Akiva)
Tanna
4th
Eliezer ben Yose the Galilean
Tanna
4th
Eliezer Hisma
Tanna
3rd
Elisha ben Avuyah
(colleague of Akiva, one of the "four who entered Pardes", later turned apostate)
Tanna
3rd
Gamaliel (II)
Tanna (and Patriarch)
2nd
Hanina (bar Hama)
Amora
Israel
1st
Hillel
(pre-Tannaitic Pharisaic teacher, first century B.C.E., colleague of Shammai)
Hiyya (Rava-"the Greater" (Transitional) (student of Rabbi Judah the Patriarch, born in Babylonia but moved to Israel)
Tanna
Amora
5th
1st
Hiyya bar Abba
Amora
Babylonia
3rd
Hoshaiah
Amora
Babylonia
(moved to Israel)
3rd
Huna
Amora
Babylonia
2nd
Isaac (ben Aha)
Amora
Israel
2nd-3rd
Ishmael (ben Elisha)
(leader of one of the two great schools of thought analyzed in this volume)
Tanna
3rd
Issi ben Judah (= Joseph the Babylonian)
Tanna
5th
Johanan (ben Nappaha)
Amora
Israel
2nd
Johanan ben Zakkai
(established the Academy of Yavneh upon the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 C.E.)
Tanna
1st
Jonathan
(disciple of Rabbi Ishmael; "Rabbi Jonathan" cited in halakhic midrashim refers to this authority)
Tanna
4th
Jonathan (ben Eleazar)
("Rabbi Jonathan" cited in the aggadic midrashim refers to this authority)
Amora
Israel
1st
Joseph (ben Hiyya)
Amora
Babylonia
3rd
Joshua (ben Hananiah)
Tanna
2nd
Joshua ben Levi
Amora
Israel
1st
Judah (ben Ezekiel)
Amora
Babylonia
2nd
Judah (ben Ilay)
(disciple of Akiva)
Tanna
4th
Judah Nesiya
(grandson of Judah the Patriarch; served as Patriarch himself)
Amora
Israel
1st-2nd
Judah the Patriarch
(Hebrew: Yehuda ha-Nasi, also called "Rabbi"; political leader of Jewish community in Israel in late second century; chief compiler of Mishnah)
Tanna
5th
Levi
Amora
Israel
2nd-3rd
Meir
(disciple of Akiva, major contributor to Mishnah)
Tanna
4th
Nahum of Gimzo
(one of Rabbi Akiva's primary teachers)
Tanna
2nd
Nathan (the Babylonian)
(associated with the Avot de-Rabbi Natan)
Tanna
4th
Nehemiah
(traditional contributor of anonymous views in the Tosefta; student of Rabbi Akiva who often followed Rabbi Ishmael in aggadic matters)
Tanna
4th
Phineas (bar Hama ha-Kohen)
Amora
Israel
4th
Phineas ben Jair
Tanna
5th
Rabbah (bar Nahmani)
Amora
Babylonia
3rd
Rav (R. Abba bar Aivu)
(colleague of Samuel)
Amora
Babylonia
1st
Rava (colleague of Abbaye)
Amora
Babylonia
4th
Ravina
(disciple-colleague of R. Ashi)
Amora
Babylonia
6th
Rash Lakish. See Simeon ben Lakish
Samuel (colleague of Rav)
Amora
Babylonia
1st
Samuel bar Nahmani
Amora
Israel
2nd-3rd
Shammai (pre-Tannaitic Pharisaic teacher, 1st century B.C.E., colleague of Hillel)
Sheshet
Amora
Babylonia
3rd
Simeon ben Azzai
(colleague of Akiva, one of "four who entered Pardes)
Tanna
3rd
Simeon ben Gamaliel (two rabbis of this name, both Patriarchs; most quoted remarks belong to the later rabbi)
1st; 4th
Simeon (ben Yohai)
(disciple of Akiva, associated with the Tannaitic midrash Mekhilta of Rabbi Simeon ben Yohai; depicted in the Zohar [13th century] as the great teacher of mystical doctrine)
Tanna
4th
Simeon ben Lakish
(disciple and colleague of Johanan [ben Nappaha]; also called Resh Lakish, from a corruption of the abbreviation R.Sh.)
Amora
Israel
2nd
Simeon ben Zoma
(colleague of Akiva, one of the "four who entered Pardes)
Tanna
3rd
Simlai
Amora
Israel
2nd
Simon
Amora
Israel
2nd-3rd
Tanhuma (bar Abba)
(Midrash Tanhuma presumably named after this figure)
Amora
Israel
5th
Tarfon
(senior colleague of Akiva)
Tanna
2nd-3rd
Yose (ben Halafta)
(disciple of Akiva who generally followed Ishmael in aggadic matters)
Tanna
4th
Yose ben Hanina
Amora
Israel
2nd-3rd
Yose the Galilean
Tanna
3rd
Zeira
Amora
Babylonia
(moved to Israel)
3rd

2. Medieval and Modern Authorities

Heschel's references to medieval and modern authorities in his Heavenly Torah are important for seeing how the issues he examines were played out in Jewish thought of different periods and places. This list will assist the reader in placing Heschel's discussion in the context of general Jewish intellectual history. Spellings of names, dates, and biographical data are taken, for the most part, from Encyclopaedia Judaica. Names in biblical texts follow the spelling of standard English translations of the Bible. Other names are spelled phonetically.

N.B. Personalities are generally listed by first name if they lived prior to the Renaissance and by Surname from the Renaissance onward. However, major medieval thinkers (e.g., Maimonides, Halevi, and others) are listed by their generally known names. Names with Arabic patronymics (Ibn...) are generally listed under "Ibn".
Guide to Acronyms and Nicknames

ARI                            Luria, Isaac ben Solomon
Baal Shem Tov          Israel ben Eliezer Ba'al Shem Tov
BeSHT                       Israel ben Eliezer Ba'al Shem Tov
EPHod                       Duran, Isaac Profiat
GRA                           Elijah ben Solomon of Vilna
Hakham Zevi             Ashkenazi, Zevi Hirsch
Hatam Sofer              Sofer, Moses
HIDA                         Azulai, Hayyim Joseph David
Hizkuni                      Hezekiah ben Manoah
MaBIT                       Trani, Moses ben Joseph
MaHaRaL                  Judah Loew of Prague
MaHaRaM                 Schiff, Meir ben Jacob Ha-Kohen
MaHaRIL                   Moellin, Jacob ben Moses
MaHaRshA                Edels, Samuel Eliezer ben Judah
MaHaRSHaL             Luria, Solomon ben Jehiel
MaHaRZU                 Einhorn, Ze'ev Wolf
RaABaD                    Abraham ben David of Posquieres
RaBaN                       Eliezer ben Nathan of Mainz
Rabbenu Bahya         Bahya ben Asher
Rabbenu Hananel      Hananel ben Hushiel
Rabbenu Nissim        Nissim ben Reuben Gerondi
RaDaK                       Kimhi, David
RaDBaZ                     David ben Solomon Ibn Azi Zimra
RaLBaG                     Gersonides (Levi ben Gershom)
RaMaK                       Cordovero, Moses
RaMBaM                    Maimonides, Moses
RaMBaN                    Nahmanides, Moses
RaN                            Nissim ben Reuben Gerondi
RaSHBA                     Adret, Solomon ben Abraham
RaSHBaM                  Samuel ben Meir
RaShBaTZ                  Duran, Simeon ben Zemah
Resh Lakish                Rabbi Simeon ben Lakish (Amora of Israel)
RIBaSH                       Isaac ben Sheshet Perfet
RITBA                         Yom Tov ben Abraham Ishbili (= of Seville)
ROSH                         Asher ben Jehiel
TaZ (< Turei Zahav)    David ben Samuel Halevi
YaVeTZ                       Emden, Jacob


3. Primary Literary Sources
(with abbreviations in parentheses)

The following list comprises the majority of the primary sources that Heschel cites repeatedly in Torah min Hashamayim. Most are listed by title, either because they were anonymous or collective works, or because though the author or compiler is known, the work has acquired a personality and reputation of its own far overshadowing its human author. A few of the outstanding personalities whom Heschel cites (Maimonides, etc.) are listed here for the purpose of bibliographic familiarization.

Source references of many of these works are given by paragraph or chapter. Though these are not always entirely uniform in all editions,they are generally the best guide. In cases where references are by page number, they are according to the standard modern Hebrew edition of that work.

Thanks to recent efforts of numerous scholars, the majority of primary sources that Heschel cites are now available in English translation [cf. Sefaria et al.] These are listed here so that the interested reader with little or no knowledge of Hebrew can explore further in the primary sources.
  • Avot.  Pirkei Avot [Ethics of the Fathers], a short collection of ethical maxims of the Sages of the first and second centuries B.C.E. and C.E. Textual references are given according to the standard editions of the Mishnah, which differ slightly in paragraph division from the version in the traditional Jewish prayer book. There are several English editions, including The Living Talmud: The Wisdom of the Fathers and Its Classical Commentaries, Selected and Translated with an Essay, by Judah Goldin (New York: New American Library, 1957). Pirkei Avot is also included in the fourth division of any edition of the Mishnah, and in most traditional "daily" prayer books.
  • Avot de-Rabbi Natan (ARN). Much more discursive than Avot, this supplements the same and additional maxims with a wealth of anecdotes about the Tannaitic masters. The standard Hebrew edition is that of Solomon Schechter (3rd corrected edition by Feldheim in 1967), giving "A" and "B" versions. For an English edition, see Judah Goldin, The Fathers According to Rabbi Nathan, Yale Judaica Series 10 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1955) (based on "A" version).
  • Babylonian Talmud (BT). Edited in Babylonia in the fifth to seventh centuries, with gradual accretions for the next several centuries, this is the greatest classic of Jewish law and lore after the Bible. Pagination follows the nineteenth-century Vilna edition. The first complete English translation was The Soncino Talmud (London: Soncino Press, 1935-48). A compact edition was published in 1961, and facing-page editions since then. This is still a classic, but difficult for the novice. More recent English translations include those of Jacob Neusner, (The Talmud of Babylonia [Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1984-96]) and Adin Steinsaltz (The Talmud [New York: Random House, 1989-(proceeding slowly)]).
  • Beit Ha-Midrash. This anthology of midrashim in Hebrew, with German apparatus, was recovered from manuscript in the nineteenth century, edited by Adolph Jellinek (Jerusalem: Bamberger & Wahrman, 1938).
  • Ein Ya'akov. This is a compilation of the nonlegal, folkloristic passages of the Babylonian Talmud, with occasional enlightening variants and paraphrases. It was compiled by Jacob ben Solomon ibn Habib (1445-1515/16, Spain and Salonika). An archaic English edition by Rabbi S. H. Glick (5 volumes, facing English and Hebrew columns, 1916) was reprinted by Traditional Press. A newer English translation (by A. Finkel) has been published by Jason Aronson, Northvale, N.J., 1999.
  • Josephus. For a one-volume edition of all his extant works, see The Works of Josephus (Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson Publishers, 1987).
  • Maimonides. There is a wealth of material available in English from the writings of this seminal medieval thinker, inclding the following:
    ~ The Guide for the Perplexed. Edited by Shlomo Pines. 2 volumes. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1963.
    ~ Mishneh Torah, Volumes 1-2, The Book of Knowledge, The Book of Adoration. Edited by Moses Hyamson. Jerusalem, 1965. English and Hebrew on facing pages.
    ~ Mishneh Torah: The Code of Maimonides. Volumes 2-14. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1949-2004.
    ~ The Commandments (Sefer ha-Mitzvot). Edited by Charles Chavel. 2 volumes. London: Soncino Press, 1967.
    ~ A Maimonides Reader. Edited by Isadore Twersky. New York: Behrman House, 1972. Includes extensive selections from the Mishneh Torah and abridgements of "Eight Chapters" (ethical treatise prefacing his commentary on Avot), and "Helek" (introduction to Sanhedrin chapter 10, enumerating his Thirteen Principles of belief).
  • Mekilta de-Rabbi Ishmael (MI). This Tannaitic midrash on Exodus is attributed to the school of Rabbi Ishmael (second-third centuries). English edition, edited by Jacob Z. Lauterbach. 3 volumes. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1933.
  • Mekilta de-Rabbi Simeon ben Yohai (MSY). This Tannaitic midrash on Exodus, attributed to the school of Rabbi Akiva (second-third centuries), was reconstructed by modern scholars from manuscript fragments and quotations in later works. The pagination follows the edition of J. N. Epstein. Hebrew only (Jerusalem: Shaare Rahamim, 1979).
  • Midrash Haggadol. This thirteenth-century anthology of earlier midrashim on the Torah, compiled by David ben Amram Adani of Aden is published in separate volumes (Hebrew only), as follows:
    ~ Genesis. By Mordecai Margulies. Jerusalem: Mossad ha-Rav Kuk, 1947.
    ~ Exodus. By Mordecai Margulies. Jerusalem: Mossad ha-Rav Kuk, 1956.
    ~ Leviticus. Pagination follows edition by E. N. Rabinowitz. New York: Jewish Theological Seminary, 1930. There is a more recent edition by Adin Steinzaltz (Mossad ha-Rav Kuk, 1975). This is the current standard, but was later than Heschel's work.
    ~ Numbers. By Rabbi Dr. Solomon Fisch (London, 1957) (notes in English).
    ~ Deuteronomy. By Solomon Fisch. Jerusalem: Mossad ha-Rav Kuk, 1972.
  • Midrash on Psalms. A midrashic compendium based on the book of Psalms. English version: Midrash on Psalms. Edited by William Braude. 2 volumes. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1959.
  • Midrash Rabbah. The most famous of the classical post-Tannaitic midrashim, artificially pieced together centuries ago from diverse origins. Includes midrashim on books of the Torah and the "Five Scrolls" (Song of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, and Esther). English edition: Midrash Rabbah. 10 volumes. London: Soncino Press, 1939.
  • "Minor Tractates". The standard modern Hebrew editions were edited by Michael Higger. In 1965, Soncino Press published The Minor Tractates of the Talmud (2 volumes) including: Soferim, Avot of Rabbi Nathan, Samahot [Mourning], Kallah, Kallah Rabbati, Derekh Eretz Rabbah, Derekh Eretz Zuta, Perek Ha-Shalom, Gerim, Kuthim, Abadim, Sefer Torah, Tefillin, Zizith, and Mezuzah. In 1966, Yale University Press published The Tractate Mourning (Semahot), edited by Dov Zlotnick, with critical notes.
  • Mishnah. This classic legal compendium, compiled around 200 C.E. by Judah the Patriarch, is tha basis of the Babylonian Talmud and Talmud of the Land of Israel. English versions include the following:
    ~ Herbert Danby. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1933.
    ~ Philip Blackman. New York: Judaica Press, 1964 (with facing Hebrew and helpful notes).
    ~ Pinhas Kehati. Magisterial Hebrew annotated version (1977) now in English (Jerusalem: Eliner Library, 1994-96).
    ~ Jacob Neusner. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988.
  • Nahmanides. The principal work of this medieval mystic, cited frequently by Heschel, is available in English: Ramban (Nahmanides). Commentary on the Torah. Edited by Charles B> Chavel. 5 volumes. New York: Shilo, 1971.
  • Palestinian Talmud (PT). See Talmud of the Land of Israel.
  • Pesikta de-Rav Kahana (PRK). Midrashic compendium organized according to the holiday sermonic calendar. Pagination follows Solomon Buber's Hebrew edition. English version: Pesikta de-Rav Kahana. Edited by William Braude and Israel Kapstein. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1975.
  • Pesikta Rabbati (PR). Similar to Pesikta de-Rav Kahana. Pagination follows Mair Ish Shalom [Friedmann]'s Hebrew edition. English version: Pesikta Rabbati. Edited by William Braude. 2 volumes. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1968.
  • Philo. His works are available in the Loeb Classical Library (Harvard University Press). In addition, several anthologies have appeared, notably The Essential Philo, edited by Nahum N. Glatzer (New York: Schocken Books, 1971).
  • Saadia Gaon. His philosophical work Sefer Ha-Emunot veha-Deot was the first major medieval Jewish philosophical book. English edition: Book of Beliefs and Opinions. Edited by Samuel Rosenblatt. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1948.
  • Shulhan Arukh. Code of Jewish law by Joseph Caro, with supplementary material by Moses Isserles, sixteenth century.
  • Sifra. Tannaitic midrash on Leviticus, attributed to the school of Rabbi Akiva (second-third centuries), with some portions apparently derived from the school of Rabbi Ishmael. Pagination follows the Hebrew edition of Isaac Hirsch Weiss. English edition: Sifra. Edited by Jacob Neusner. 3 volumes. Atlanta: Scholars Press & Brown University, 1988.
  • Sifre. Tannaitic midrash on Numbers and Deuteronomy, combining teachings of the schools of Rabbi Ishmael and Rabbi Akiva (second-third centuries). There are separate English editions per book, as follows:
    ~ Sifre to Numbers. Edited by Jacob Neusner. Atlanta: Scholars Press and Brown University, 1986.
    ~ Sifre to Deuteronomy. Edited by Jacob Neusner. 2 volumes. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1987.
    ~ Sifre to Deuteronomy. Edited by Reuven Hammer. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1986.
  • Sifre Zuta. A variant of Sifre on Numbers, from the Aktivan school. Pagination follows the Hebrew edition of Horowitz.
  • Talmud of the Land of Israel. Edited in Israel in the fourth-fifth centuries, also called Talmud Yerushalmi (Jerusalem Talmud) or Palestinian Talmud, this is a parallel work to Babylonian Talmud, but less fully developed and far less influential in later Jewish thought. Pagination follows the classical Daniel Bomberg printed edition (Venice, 1523-24). English edition: The Talmud of the Land of Israel. Jacob Neusner, general editor. 35 volumes. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982-(organization by chapter and paragraph, does not cross-reference to the Venice pagination).
  • Tanhuma. An early medieval midrashic collection following the order of the Torah, which exists in two substantially different forms. The one is called simply "Tanhuma", or "Tanhuma, Warsaw (printed) edition." The other was discovered in manuscript and edited by Solomon Buber and is called "Tanhuma Buber", or "Tanhuma, Buber's edition" (TB in the footnotes of Heschel's work). Ktav Publishers (Hoboken, N.J.) has published parts of both of these: Midrash Tanhuma, "printed" version, by Samuel A. Berman, on Genesis-Exodus (1996); Midrash Tanhuma, S. Buber Recension, by John T. Townsend, on Genesis (1989), on Exodus-Leviticus (1997), on Numbers-Deuteronomy (2003).
  • Tanna De-vei Eliyahu. A sui-generis freeform midrashic compendium (early medieval), purporting to emanate from the school of the prophet Elijah. Pagination follows Meir Ish Shalom [Friedman]'s Hebrew edition. English version: Tanna De-Be Eliyahu. Edited by William Braude and Israel Kapstein. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1981.
  • Tannaitic Midrashim. A collective term comprising both Mekhiltas, Sifra, Sifre, and Midrash Tannaim. See Glossary (at No. 4 below) for bearkdown by schools.
  • Tosefta. A shadow work of the Mishnah, comprising variant and alternative legal traditions organized in the same rubric of "orders" and "tractates". The authoritative edition of the Tosefta was edited by Saul Lieberman (with separate exhaustive commentary Tosefta Ki-feshuta), covering the first three-and-one-half orders. English edition: The Tosefta. Translated from the Hebrew by Jacob Neusner. New York: Ktav, 1979-86.
  • Yalkut Shimoni (YS). A popular comprehensive anthology of midrashim, arranged in the order of the Bible, most likely written in Germany in the thirteenth century. Hebrew only.
  • Zohar. Thirteenth-century classic of Jewish mysticism is today in print in many Hebrew editions. Pagination follows the nineteenth-century Vilna edition. English version: The Zohar. 2nd ed. London: Soncino Press, 1984. A new translation was edited by Daniel Matt, 2004-2016, and is an ongoing project (cf. The Zohar: Pritzker Edition). In addition, Isaiah Tishby's magisterial topical anthology Mishnat Ha-Zohar is now available in English: The Wisdom of Zohar, 3 volumes (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989).

4. Glossary of Terms

a fortiori.  See kal vahomer.
aggadah  (pl. aggadot). (1) An exemplary or homiletic tale. (2) Aggadah (collective): The lore of the rabbis, inclusive of tales, proverbs, and obiter dicta.
Amora (pl. Amoraim). A rabbinic teacher of the period between the closure of the Mishnah and the first compilation of the Talmud, approximately 200-500 C.E.
Generations of Amoraim (according to Steinsaltz)


LAND OF ISRAEL

BABYLONIA

1.   220-250 C.E.
Joshua ben Levi
Rav, Samuel
2.   250-290 C.E.
Johanan, Resh Lakish
Huna, Judah
3.   290-320 C.E.
Ammi, Assi, Zera
Rabba, Joseph
4.   320-350 C.E.
Hillel II
Abbaye, Rava
5.   350-375 C.E.
Tanhuma ben Abba
Pappa
6.   375-425 C.E.

Ashi, Ravina I
7.   425-460 C.E.

Mar ben Rav Ashi
8.   460-500 C.E.

Ravina II

apikoros (from "Epicurus", hence Epicurean). A heretic, especially one who denies active providence. The ancient Epicureans taught that the gods do not care for humankind. The term apikoros probably originally entered the rabbinic vocabulary from their recognition of this aspect of Epicurean philosophy. However, later Jewish teachers (who were not directly familiar with classic Epicureanism) applied the term to disbelievers in general.
Aspaklaryah. Rabbinic adaptation of Latin specularium, "mirror or lens". Medium through which one sees or perceives; perspective. Used by Heschel in three contexts: (1) Rabbinic contrast between "a bright speculum" and "a dark speculum", contrasting the perfect clarity of Moses' prophetic insight with the lesser clarity of the other prophets. This is identical with Paul's "now we see through a glass darkly" (1 Corinthians 13:12). The ideal mystic is supposed to overcome this barrier and see heavenly matters "through a bright speculum". The failed mystic sees only through "a dark speculum". (2) "Trascendental" and "terrestrial" perspectives (see Chapter 14 of Heschel's book). (3) In the subtitle "As Refracted through the Generations": this book deals with the notion of "Torah from Heaven" reflected in the interpretations of generations of Jewish Sages, from rabbinic times to the present.
Baraita (pl. Baraitot). An orally transmitted teaching, attributed to one or more of the Tannaim (rabbis of 20-200 C.E.) but not included in the Mishnah.
B.C.E. Before Common Era, that is, before the current general or Christian calendar.
canons of interpretation (middot sheha-Torah nidreshet bahen). Principles used by the Rabbis in making deductive interpretations from the Torah. Especially, the "Thirteen Canons of Rabbi Ishmael", enunciated in the beginning of the Sifra and included in the Jewish daily prayer service.
C.E. Common Era, that is, the current general or Christian calendar.
Derash. Homilizing interpretation. (1) A nonliteral or fanciful interpretation of a single word or phrase, to elicit a moral or homiletic meaning. (2) The method of nonliteral, homiletic interpretation in general, as opposed to Peshat.
derekh eretz. "The Way of the World". This term is extremely broad in signification, denoting all the virtues of ordinary, worldly conduct in complementarity to the higher virtues inculcated in the Torah. It includes working for a livelihood, good manners, life experience, natural ethics (as attested by non-Jewish as well as Jewish practice), and even sexual intercourse. Many sayings attest to the general rabbinic view that whoever has only Torah or only derekh eretz without the other, is incomplete.
Dorshei Reshumot. "Solvers of enigmas" (following W. Bacher's understanding of rasham in Erkhei Midrash Tannaim, p. 125 [see appendix 5]). Apparently a school of allegorists who were proficient at interpreting the symbolism of language. Who exactly they were is still an enigma in search of solution.
Epicurean. See apikoros.
Eretz Yisrael. The Land of Israel.
get. Legal wit, especially of divorce.
gezerah shavah. Verbal analogy. Canon 2 attributed to Rabbi Ishmael. If the same word occurs in two separate passages, traditions of exegesis may apply certain aspects of the legal force of that word in the one passage (or other circumstances of the law in that case) to the law in the second passage.
Great Assembly (Kneset Ha-gedolah). The cadre of leadership in the period from Ezra to the conquests of Alexander. What form this leadership body took is utterly unknown. Kneset is equivalent to the Greek synagōgē, that is, "gathering, assembly". Traditions of this group indicated that they started the path of midrashic interpretation of Torah, to develop ancillary legislation that was later developed extensively by the Rabbis. Mishnah Avot 1:1 names this as a critical stage (in that they are the first quoted authorities) in the passing of the tradition of Torah, coming after Moses, Joshua, the elders and prophets, and before the Sages of the Mishnaic period.
halakhah (pl. halakhot). (1) The authoritative, decided law of the rabbis in a particular case. (2) Halakhah (collective): The whole body of rabbinic law, or the discipline of studying rabbinic law.
kal vahomer. A fortiori. Canon 1 attributed to Rabbi Ishmael. If a case of lesser weight (i.e., likely to be of less concern) is explicitly mentioned in a rule of the Torah, but one of greater weight (homer) is not mentioned, one may deduce that the law must certainly apply in the weightier case, even though it is not mentioned. Certain limitations must be observed in invoking this principle: (1) No judicial punishment may be enforced for the deduced case. (2) Even though case 2 is more severe, only the equivalent legal status of case 1 may be inferred, not a more severe status.
kavanah. Intention, specifically: (1) the intention to fulfill a mitzvah, when one happens to perform am action that falls under the category of that injunction; (2) attentiveness, especially to the meaning of prayers or other content of religious actions when engaged in them.
kiddush Ha-shem. Sanctification of the (Divine) Name. This is the classic rabbinic term for laying down one's life rather than transgress Torah—what in common parlance we call martyrdom.
menorah. Lampstand. Biblical: The seven-branched lampstand that stood in the Tabernacle and Temple, with cups filled with olive oil. Not to be confused with candelabra—candles were of medieval origin. Also not to be confused with the nine-branched candelabra used in the holiday of Hanukkah.
Merkavah. Chariot. The study of divine mysteries, based on the description of the Divine Chariot in Ezekiel 1.
Midrash (pl. Midrashim). Homily. (1) A characteristic rabbinic form of teaching in which an idea or lesson is presented as growing out of an interpretation of a scriptural verse or verses. (2) An extended homiletic lesson or teaching, using one or more examples of Derash-interpretations of individual words or verses as building blocks to underpin its argument. (3) A compiled work of midrashim.
Mishnah. (Legal) teaching. (1) The code of legal teachings assembled from previous oral traditions by Judah the Patriarch around 200 C.E. (2) A paragraph or single teaching from that collection.
mitzvah. (pl. mitzvot). Commandment. (1) Any of the positive injunctions or prohibitions held to be commanded by God in the Torah, or derived by the Rabbis in their interpretation of the Torah. (2) By extension, any action, whether ethical or ritual, performed for the sake of serving God and carrying out the divine will.
mi'ut. Limitation. The hermeneutic principle (associated with Rabbi Akiva) that certain words ("however", "only", etc.) may be interpreted as implying limitations of the extent of a law, even though these cases are not explicitly mentioned in the text. (See also ribbui.)
Oral Torah (Torah shebe'al peh). Authoritative Jewish religious teachings, supplementary to the Written Torah and originally transmitted orally, though later compiled in works such as the Mishnah and Talmud. Debates proliferated as to the origin of the Oral Torah (whether of divine origin, human origin, or a mixture of both), its chronology (whether from Sinai, or later, or both), and the nature of its authority. These debates are documented and analyzed in the current work (especially volumes 2 and 3).
Pardes. Orchard. From Latin paradisium. The "Orchard", or garden of mysteries; the study or practice of mysticism.
Peshat. The plain-sense or contextual understanding (more literally: surface meaning) of Scripture (as opposed to Derash). (1) The contextual understanding of a particular word, phrase, or verse. (2) The method of contextual interpretation in general. Note: While Peshat is often equated with literal interpretation, it includes also plain-sense understanding of common metaphor in a nonliteral way, such as understanding the "hand of God" to mean "the power of God", and the like. See discussion of Rabbi Ishmael's principle "the Torah speaks in human language" in Heschel's chapter 13.
ribbui. Expansion. The hermeneutic principle (associated with Rabbi Akiva) that certain words ("also", "and", etc.) may be interpreted as implying enlargement of the extent of application of the law, even though these cases are not explicitly mentioned in the text. (See also mi'ut.)
Shekhinah. The Divine Presence or Indwelling of God in the world (based on Exodus 25:8: "Let them make Me a sanctuary that I may dwell [veshakhanti] in their midst"). This conception became extremely important in rabbinic and later mystical literature. In the kabbalistic system, the Shekhinak is the tenth of the Sefirot, and its feminine character is quite pronounced. See Heschel's chapters 5-6.
speculum. See Aspaklaryah.
Sukkah (pl. Sukkot). Tabernacle, booth, especially a harvest booth erected for the Festival of Sukkot (Tabernacles) in the fall.
Talmud. Study. (1) Either of the two major corpuses of Jewsih law and lore (Halakhah and Aggadah), viz., the Talmud of the Land of Israel (Palestinian or Jerusalem Talmud) and the Babylonian Talmud. Each is written in the form of extensive commentaries on the Mishnah, branching out into discussion of multiple related topics and comprising the traditions of Rabbis in the second through fifth centuries, plus later interpolations. (2) The enterprise of legal exegetical discussion represented in these works.
Tanna (pl. Tannaim). A rabbinic teacher of the period reflected in the Mishnah, i.e., approximately 20 C.E. to 200 C.E.
Generations of Tannaim
  1. 40-80 C.E.         Johanan ben Zakkai et al.
  2. 80-110 C.E.       Gamaliel II, Eliezer ben Hyrcanus, Joshua ben Hananiah, et al.
  3. 110-135 C.E.     Akiva, Ishmael, et al.
  4. 135-170 C.E.     Simeon ben Yohai, Judah ben Ilay, Meir, et al.
  5. 170-200 C.E.     Judah the Patriarch et al.
Tannaitic Midrashim. This generic term is applied to the following exegetical works, primarily halakhic (but including much aggadic material as well), and held by modern scholars to be of two major types. D. Z. Hoffmann and others saw them as lergely the product of the schools of Rabbi Ishmael and Rabbi Akiva as follows:

School of Rabbi Ishmael
School of Rabbi Akiva
On Exodus
    Mekilta of Rabbi Ishmael
Rav, Samuel
Mekilta of Rabbi Simeon ben Yohai
On Leviticus
    (some portions of Sifra)

Sifra (of the school of Rab)


On Numbers
    Sifre on Numbers

Sifre Zuta


On Deuteronomy
    Midrash Tannaim on Deuteronomy

Sifre on Deuteronomy


Torah. Instruction. (1) The Five Books of Moses (Genesis through Deuteronomy), also called "Written Torah". (2) The totality of all authoritative Jewish religious teaching, comprising Written and Oral Torah.

5. Principal Secondary Works Cited

The following titles are prominent among the modern scholarly works cited by Heschel in Heavenly Torah. Scholarship in rabbinics has made great strides in the past forty years, but many of these works are classics that still contribute to the assessment of the problems they discuss. Several of the works in German and Hebrew have no equivalent in English to this date.
  • Bacher: Wilhelm Bacher, Erkei Midrash Hatannaim [Lexicon of Rabbinic Exegetical Terminology] (Tel Aviv: Rabinowitz, 5683/1923). Translated from the German Exegetische Terminologie der jüdischen Traditionsliteratur (Leipzig, 1899/1905; reprint, Darmstadt, 1965).
  • Chajes: Zevi Hirsch Chajes, The Student's Guide through the Talmud [Hebrew Mevo Ha-Talmud], translated by Jacob Shachter (London: East and West Library, 1952).
  • Epstein: J. N. Epstein, Mevo'ot le-sifrut ha-tannaim [Introduction to Tannaitic Literature: Mishnah, Tosephta and Halakhic Midrashim] (Jerusalem: Magnes, 1957). This, and Epstein's Introduction to the Redaction of the Mishnah did more than any other comparable work to set modern textual study of rabbinic literature on a scientific basis.
  • Finkelstein (Akiba): Louis Finkelstein, Akiba: Scholar, Saint and Martyr (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, New York: Meridian, 1936; reprint, 1962).
  • Finkelstein (Avot): Louis Finkelstein, Mavo le-masekhtot Avot ve-Avot de-Rabbi Natan [Introduction to the Treatises Abot and Abot of Rabbi Nathan] (Hebrew with English summary) (New York: Jewish Theological Seminary, 1950).
  • Genizah Studies in Memory of Dr. Solomon Schechter, 3 volumes (Hebrew texts with English introductions) (New York: Jewish Theological Seminary, 1928-29). These three volumes published in the early twentieth century were representative of the thousands of texts recovered by Solomon Schechter in the Cairo Genizah in the 1890s, greatly expanding scholarly knowledge of medieval Jewish life and thought:
    ~ Volume 1: Midrash and Haggadah, edited by Louis Ginzberg.
    ~ Volume 2: Geonic and Early Karaite Halakhah, edited by Louis Ginzberg.
    ~ Volume 3: Liturgical and Secular Poetry, edited by Israel Davidson.
  • Ginzberg: Louis Ginzberg, Legends of the Jews, 7 volumes (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1909-38). Reworks midrashic tales from many sources into a continuous narrative paralleling the biblical plot, with extensive notes. A classic.
  • Higger: Michael Higger, Otzar Ha-Baraitot (in Hebrew), 10 volumes (New York: Rabbinical Assembly and Central Conference of American Rabbis, 1938-48). This exhaustive collection of Baraitot cross-indexes their occurrence in the various genres of rabbinic literature. A key tool for critical scholarship of rabbinical literature.
  • Hoffmann: David Zevi Hoffmann, "Le-heker Midreshei ha-Tannaim" [On the Study of Tannaitic Midrashim], with "Supplement" by Hayyim Saul Horowitz, translated by A. Z. Rabinowitz and included in Mesillot le-Torat ha-Tannaim [Pathways through Tannaitic Thought] (Tel Aviv, 1928).
  • Lieberman: Saul Lieberman, dean of American rabbinic scholars in Heschel's lifetime. The works of his to which Heschel refers include:
    ~ Tosefta and Tosefta Ki-feshutah. The definitive critical edition of the first three-and-one-half orders of the Tosefta, with magisterial commentary covering parallels of the material in all rabbinic literature.
    ~ Hellenism in Jewish Palestine: Studies in the Literary Transmission, Beliefs, and Manners of Palestine in the I Century B.C.E. - IV Century C.E. (New York: Jewish Theological Seminary, 1962).
    ~ Midreshei Teiman [Yemenite Midrash: A Lecture] (Jerusalem: Bamberger & Vahrman, 1940).
  • Mann: Jacob Mann, The Bible as Read and Preached in the Old Synagogue, Volume 1 (Cincinnati: UAHC; Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1940); Volume 2 (J. Mann & Isaiah Sayre; Cincinnati: HUC-JIR, 1966).
  • Marmorstein: A. Marmorstein, The Old Rabbinic Doctrine of God (Farnborough: Gregg, 1969).
  • Melamed: Ezra Zion Melamed, Midreshei halakah shel ha-tannaim ba-Talmud ha-Bavli [Halakhic Midrashim of the Tannaim in the Talmud Babli] (in Hebrew) (Jerusalem: MOsad Ha-Rav Kuk, 1943).
  • Neubauer: Yekutiel (Jacob) Neubauer, "Halakhah u-midrash halakhah" [Halakhah and Halakhic Midrash] (in Hebrew), Sinai 22 (5708/Fall 1947): 49-80.
  • Scholem: Gershom Scholem. This German-Jewish scholar, who moved to Palestine in the 1920s, single-handedly placed the study of Jewish mysticism on a modern scientific basis, with the following works:
    ~ Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism, The Hilda Stich Stroock Lectures 1938 (Jerusalem: Schocken, 1941)
    ~ Origins of Kabbalah (ed. Werblowsky; Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1987)
    ~ Kabbalah (Jerusalem: Keter, 1974)
    ~ Sabbatai Zevi: The Mystical Messiah (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1973).
  • Zunz: Leopold Zunz, Gottesdienstlichen Vorträge der Juden historisch entwickelt [Liturgical Preaching among Jews, in its Historical Development] (1832; Jerusalem: Mosad Bialik, 1954; reprint, Hildesheim, 1966). Citations in this work are to the Hebrew edition, Ha-Derashot be-Yisrael ve-hishtalshelutan ha-historit, edited by H. Albeck (Jerusalem: Mosad Bialik, 1946/1954).
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